In the pursuit of enhancing the photoelectric conversion efficiency of solar panels in low-carbon parks, this study focuses on the development of novel photovoltaic cells utilizing wide bandgap materials. The primary objective is to address the limitations in current photovoltaic technology by synthesizing donor materials from compounds such as 1,3-dibromo-5,5-dimethylhydantoin (DBH) and diketone isoindole, combined with non-fullerene acceptors like Y6-BO and PTIC. Through systematic testing of optimal ratios, voltammetric characteristics, and carrier transport properties, we aim to establish a theoretical foundation for efficient energy conversion in smart photovoltaic systems. The integration of these materials into solar panels promises significant improvements in power conversion efficiency, which is critical for advancing renewable energy applications in sustainable environments.
The growing demand for clean energy has propelled research into photovoltaic systems, particularly solar panels that can operate efficiently under varying conditions. Traditional photovoltaic cells often suffer from low conversion rates due to material constraints, such as narrow bandgaps that limit light absorption. In this work, we explore wide bandgap materials to overcome these challenges, as they enable better utilization of the solar spectrum. By fabricating cells with tailored donor-acceptor blends, we investigate their performance in real-world scenarios, including their integration into intelligent energy acquisition systems for low-carbon parks. This approach not only enhances efficiency but also supports the development of smart grids that optimize energy harvesting and distribution.
To begin, the synthesis of the donor material involved a multi-step process starting with the reaction of monofluoro monoalkoxy compounds with tributyl(3-thienyl)tin in the presence of tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium and anhydrous dichloromethane (DCM). The mixture was maintained at 130°C for 12 hours, followed by evaporation to yield intermediate A1. Subsequent steps included chlorination with anhydrous ferric chloride in DCM, leading to product A2, and bromination using N-bromosuccinimide (NBS) and concentrated sulfuric acid to obtain A3. Further reactions with tin-based compounds and palladium catalysts resulted in A4 and A5,最终 yielding the final donor material A6 after purification with methanol and chloroform. This synthetic route ensured high purity and optimal electronic properties for the photovoltaic applications.
The preparation of the photovoltaic panel cells involved several critical stages. First, indium tin oxide (ITO) glass substrates measuring 1.5 cm × 1.5 cm were meticulously cleaned using deionized water, acetone, and isopropanol in an ultrasonic bath for 15 minutes each, followed by ozone-UV treatment to remove contaminants. A layer of PEDOT/PSS was spin-coated onto the substrates at 4000 rpm and annealed at 150°C for 15 minutes to form a uniform film. The active layer was prepared by blending the synthesized donor material A6 with acceptor materials Y6-BO or PTIC in specific ratios, as detailed in Table 1, and stirred under nitrogen for 12 hours. This blend was then spin-coated onto the PEDOT/PSS layer and annealed under similar conditions. Finally, a solution of PDIN in methanol/acetic acid was applied at 5000 rpm, and silver electrodes were deposited via thermal evaporation at pressures below 1×10⁻⁴ Pa and a rate of 0.5 Å/s, completing the cell fabrication.
Characterization of the synthesized material A6 included UV-visible absorption spectroscopy and electrochemical analysis. The absorption spectra, as shown in Figure 1, revealed peak intensities at 532 nm in solution and 568 nm in film form, indicating strong aggregation behavior. The optical bandgap was calculated using the absorption edge, yielding a value of 2.10 eV, which classifies A6 as a wide bandgap material. This property is advantageous for photovoltaic cells as it allows for broader light harvesting. The electrochemical properties were assessed via cyclic voltammetry, where the oxidation and reduction potentials were measured at 0.7 V and -1.98 V, respectively. Using the equations below, the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) energy levels were determined:
$$ E_{\text{HOMO}}^{\text{ec}} = -e(E_{\text{ox}} + 4.8) $$
$$ E_{\text{LUMO}}^{\text{ec}} = -e(E_{\text{red}} + 4.8) $$
where $E_{\text{ox}}$ and $E_{\text{red}}$ are the oxidation and reduction potentials versus the ferrocene/ferrocenium couple. This resulted in HOMO and LUMO levels of -5.5 eV and -2.8 eV, respectively. The electrochemical bandgap was computed as:
$$ E_g^{\text{ec}} = E_{\text{LUMO}}^{\text{ec}} – E_{\text{HOMO}}^{\text{ec}} = 2.69 \, \text{eV} $$
and the effective LUMO level was derived as:
$$ E_{\text{LUMO}}^{\text{eff}} = E_{\text{LUMO}}^{\text{ec}} + E_g^{\text{opt}} = -3.46 \, \text{eV} $$
where $E_g^{\text{opt}}$ is the optical bandgap. These values highlight the reduced orbital energy levels due to the incorporation of diketone isoindole, enhancing the material’s suitability for high-efficiency solar panels.
To optimize the photovoltaic performance, we systematically varied the donor-to-acceptor mass ratios and film thicknesses, as summarized in Table 1. The energy conversion efficiency was measured for each configuration, revealing that the blend of A6 with Y6-BO at a 1:1.5 ratio and a film thickness of 100 nm achieved the highest efficiency of 15.23%. In contrast, the A6:PTIC combination under similar conditions yielded only 11.37%. This demonstrates the superior compatibility of Y6-BO as an acceptor material in photovoltaic cells, attributed to its broader absorption range and better charge transport properties. The detailed results emphasize the importance of material selection and processing parameters in developing efficient solar panels for photovoltaic systems.
| Donor Material | Acceptor Material | Donor:Acceptor Ratio | Film Thickness (nm) | Energy Conversion Efficiency (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A6 | Y6-BO | 1:1 | 100 | 11.22 |
| 1:1.5 | 100 | 15.23 | ||
| 1:2 | 100 | 13.66 | ||
| PTIC | 1:1 | 100 | 9.38 | |
| 1:1.5 | 100 | 11.37 | ||
| 1:2 | 100 | 8.45 | ||
| Additional variations in film thickness (80 nm and 120 nm) showed lower efficiencies, confirming 100 nm as optimal. | ||||
The current density-voltage (J-V) characteristics of the fabricated photovoltaic cells were analyzed to assess their power conversion efficiency. As illustrated in Figure 3, the A6:Y6-BO-based cells exhibited a higher short-circuit current density compared to A6:PTIC cells, with an overall increase of 4.38 mA/cm². This improvement is linked to the enhanced light absorption and reduced recombination losses in Y6-BO-based systems. The fill factor (FF) and open-circuit voltage (V_oc) were also higher for A6:Y6-BO blends, contributing to the superior performance. These findings underscore the critical role of acceptor materials in optimizing the voltammetric properties of solar panels, which directly impact the overall efficiency of photovoltaic energy conversion.
Carrier transport properties were evaluated by measuring the hole and electron mobilities in pure and blended films using the space-charge-limited current (SCLC) method. The mobility values, presented in Table 2, indicate that the A6:Y6-BO blend had a higher carrier mobility of 2.40 × 10⁻⁴ cm²/(V·s) and a charge transport rate of 1.04 × 10⁻⁴ cm²/(V·s), compared to 1.83 × 10⁻⁴ cm²/(V·s) and 0.84 × 10⁻⁴ cm²/(V·s) for A6:PTIC. The pure A6 film showed a mobility of 5.80 × 10⁻⁴ cm²/(V·s), highlighting the beneficial effects of blending with Y6-BO for improved charge transport in photovoltaic devices. This enhanced mobility facilitates efficient charge collection at the electrodes, reducing losses and boosting the performance of solar panels.
| Material | Carrier Mobility (cm²/(V·s)) | Charge Transport Rate (cm²/(V·s)) |
|---|---|---|
| A6 (pure film) | 5.80 × 10⁻⁴ | – |
| A6:Y6-BO (1:1.2 blend) | 2.40 × 10⁻⁴ | 1.04 × 10⁻⁴ |
| A6:PTIC (1:1.2 blend) | 1.83 × 10⁻⁴ | 0.84 × 10⁻⁴ |
Exciton dissociation and bimolecular recombination were investigated to understand the charge dynamics in the photovoltaic cells. The exciton dissociation probability (P_diss) was derived from the short-circuit current versus effective voltage curves, showing values of 95.3% for A6:Y6-BO and 92.2% for A6:PTIC at an effective voltage of approximately 3 V. This indicates more efficient charge generation in Y6-BO-based cells. Additionally, the bimolecular recombination was analyzed by plotting short-circuit current against light intensity, yielding power-law exponents of 0.975 for A6:Y6-BO and 0.943 for A6:PTIC. The closer the exponent is to 1, the lower the recombination; thus, A6:Y6-BO cells experience less charge loss, further validating their superiority in photovoltaic applications for solar panels.
The integration of these high-efficiency cells into an intelligent energy acquisition system was explored to demonstrate their practical utility in low-carbon parks. Such systems leverage real-time data analytics and adaptive control algorithms to optimize energy harvesting from solar panels. For instance, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) technique can be enhanced using the improved cell parameters, as described by the equation:
$$ P_{\text{max}} = V_{\text{mp}} \times I_{\text{mp}} $$
where $P_{\text{max}}$ is the maximum power, $V_{\text{mp}}$ is the voltage at maximum power, and $I_{\text{mp}}$ is the current at maximum power. By incorporating the A6:Y6-BO cells, the system can achieve higher $P_{\text{max}}$ values, leading to better energy yields. Moreover, the wide bandgap materials contribute to stable performance under varying environmental conditions, making them ideal for large-scale photovoltaic deployments.
In conclusion, this study successfully demonstrates the fabrication of high-efficiency photovoltaic panel cells using wide bandgap donor materials and non-fullerene acceptors. The A6:Y6-BO combination, with a donor-acceptor ratio of 1:1.5 and a film thickness of 100 nm, achieved an optimal energy conversion efficiency of 15.23%, surpassing the A6:PTIC system by 3.86%. The enhanced performance is attributed to superior optical absorption, higher carrier mobility, and reduced recombination losses. These findings provide a solid theoretical basis for advancing smart energy acquisition systems in low-carbon parks, where efficient solar panels are crucial for sustainable energy generation. Future work will focus on scaling up the production and integrating these cells into broader photovoltaic networks to maximize their impact on renewable energy solutions.
Further analysis of the long-term stability and environmental impact of these photovoltaic cells is essential for commercial adoption. Accelerated aging tests under simulated sunlight and humidity conditions could reveal degradation mechanisms, guiding material improvements. Additionally, life-cycle assessments would evaluate the sustainability of the synthesis process, ensuring that the benefits of high-efficiency solar panels outweigh the environmental costs. By addressing these aspects, we can pave the way for next-generation photovoltaic technologies that contribute significantly to global carbon reduction goals.
The mathematical modeling of charge transport in these systems can be extended using the drift-diffusion equation:
$$ J = q \mu n E + q D \frac{dn}{dx} $$
where $J$ is the current density, $q$ is the electron charge, $\mu$ is the mobility, $n$ is the carrier density, $E$ is the electric field, and $D$ is the diffusion coefficient. This model helps in optimizing the layer thickness and composition for better performance in solar panels. Furthermore, the integration of machine learning algorithms for predictive maintenance in intelligent photovoltaic systems could enhance reliability, using data from sensors monitoring parameters like temperature and irradiance.
In summary, the advancements in wide bandgap materials and non-fullerene acceptors presented here mark a significant step forward in photovoltaic research. The consistent emphasis on solar panels and photovoltaic efficiency throughout this work underscores their importance in the transition to renewable energy. As the demand for clean power grows, such innovations will play a pivotal role in shaping the future of energy systems, making them more efficient, intelligent, and sustainable.